Comparative Procedures for Rapid, Efficient, and Environmentally Friendly Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles Using Plant Extracts: Sustainable Approaches for Environmental Applications

Abstract

A viable substitute for traditional physical and chemical production methods, green synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) using plant extracts provides a quicker, less expensive, non-toxic, and ecologically safe option to create functional nanomaterials. The physical, chemical, and plantextract-mediated biological synthesis methods for metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles are compared in this study, with a focus on process parameters and reaction processes. The effects of pH, temperature, extract concentration, precursor concentration, and reaction time on nanoparticle size, shape, and yield are examined, as well as the functions of phytochemicals flavonoids, polyphenols, terpenoids, alkaloids, and proteins as reducing and capping agents. Along with important characterisation methods (UV-Vis, FTIR, XRD, electron microscopy, DLS), synthesis approaches for silver, zinc oxide, copper/copper oxide, iron oxide, gold, and titanium dioxide nanoparticles are analyzed. Water disinfection, heavy-metal adsorption, photocatalytic dye degradation, and agricultural pest control are among the environmental applications that are reviewed. In its conclusion, the analysis identifies issues that hinder industrial adoption, such as batch variability, inadequate mechanistic knowledge, and scale-up concerns. It also suggests ways to standardize the manufacturing of green nanoparticles.